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All poisonings are medical emergencies and immediate action is imperative. Rehabilitators should be prepared beforehand, with first aid procedures and protocols established in cooperation with a veterinarian.

All poisonings and animals are not treated in the same way. Some poisons have specific antidotes or require additional treatment. Typically, antidotes are effective only early in treatment -- if diagnosis and treatment are delayed, the antidote may not be effective. Contact your veterinarian immediately upon receiving a poisoned animal.

For information on toxins and birds, visit the National Wildlife Health Center website, where you can download The Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases (PDF files). Sections 6 and 7 discuss biotoxins, chemical toxins, symptoms and treatments.

Some basic information on poisons and mammals can be found at http://petplace.netscape.com/netscape/nsArtShow.asp?artID=2719

The most common method used to delay absorption of a toxic substance is to administer activated charcoal (e.g. Toxiban®), which works by binding the toxin and preventing further absorption. Consult with your veterinarian to learn when and how activated charcoal can be used.

Learn to safely remove external residues from feathers or fur so that there is no further absorption. Be aware that safe handling is necessary, as you may be affected. Learn the symptoms and signs in humans of acute poisoning by pesticides, herbicides and disinfectants. The National Pesticide Information Center website has information on recognition and management of pesticide poisonings (with an index of signs and symptoms, management of acute poisoning, information on specific pesticides, herbidices and disinfectants).

A toxin is a poisonous substance. It may be produced by some living organisms, it may be inorganic (such as arsenic in drinking water), or it may be man-made.

Some bacteria, insects, plants and reptiles produce toxins as natural defenses. Unfortunately, they have been joined by man-made toxins such as the insecticides Diazinon and Malathion -- chemicals that are directly or indirectly responsible for the deaths of countless animals every day.

The poisons and venoms produced by animals are called zootoxins. Venom is usually administered to prey through bites or stings. Some animals use it for defense, and others use it to capture and/or digest prey. Examples of animals that produce venom are vipers (snakes), spiders (e.g. Black Widow spider) and other arachnids. Some mammals also produce venom (e.g. some shrews have venomous saliva, while the platypus has poison spurs on its hind legs). The Portuguese Man-of-War is a coelenterate that has long, stinging tentacles covered with thousands of poison-secreting cells (nematocysts). The nematocysts 'explode' or discharge, disabling the small fish and animals upon which the Portuguese Man-of-War preys.

Many amphibians have mucus-secreting glands in the skin; the glands produce toxins to repel predators; the South American Poison Arrow frog's toxin is strong enough to kill a predator.

The only known poisonous bird is the Hooded Pitohui (Pitohui dichrous) of New Guinea. The bird's skin and feathers contain a powerful neurotoxin.

Numerous insects produce toxins (e.g. the robber fly, which stabs prey with its mouth parts, injecting saliva that contains both digestive enzymes and nerve toxins; the prey is paralyzed, its tissues liquefied). Insect stings usually produce local irritation and swelling, the result of histamines.

Insectivorous animals usually recognize and avoid insects that bioaccumulate toxins. For example, if a bird eats a Monarch butterfly, it will become ill; thereafter, the bird will be averse to eating another Monarch butterfly (conditioned aversion) or any other butterfly that looks like it. Some insects that do not produce toxins camouflage themselves to look like toxin-producing species to escape predation. For those rehabilitators who care for insectivorous species and harvest insects for them, it is crucial to know which insects are taken in the wild, and which are toxic.

Described as true toxins, some bacteria secrete toxins into the tissues that they colonize. For example, botulism is a type of food poisoning that is caused by toxins from the Clostridium botulinum bacterium. Tetanus (produced by toxins from the Clostridium tetani bacterium) is a disease that that causes spasms of the voluntary muscle (e.g. lockjaw).

The toxins produced by plants are called phytotoxins. Animals that consume plant foods are usually avoidant of toxic plants and fruits. Some avian species seem to be able to eat berries that are toxic to other species. If native plants and fruits are to be collected for captive wildlife, it is crucial that the rehabilitator be able to identify and avoid toxic species.

Animals learn from their parents, in part, which plants are toxic. It is therefore imperative that captive animals have familiarity with, and avoidant behavior of, toxic plants that will be in their environment before they are released.

Examples of toxic plants include Jimsonweed (Datura stramonium), which has toxic compounds in roots, stems and leaves. This weed grows in fields and pastures, and is poisonous enough to sicken or kill large grazing animals. All parts of the castor bean are poisonous, especially the seeds. Pokeweed has edible shoots, but the perennial root produces a cathartic poison (phytolaccin). Both the leaves and berries of the flowering dwarf mistletoe are toxic. There are numerous other toxic plants, and it is incumbent on rehabilitators to learn what grows in their release areas.

Fungal toxins are extremely poisonous. Some mushrooms (especially amanitas), if ingested, can be fatal. Their toxins can destroy cells in the kidneys, liver, musculature, blood vessels and central nervous system.

Wild animals have evolved to recognize and avoid venomous predators or toxic insects and plants, both instinctively and by learning. However, they have not evolved to recognize or avoid the poisons with which man eradicates nuisance species, or the chemicals that leach into groundwater, fresh water, salt water, soil and the atmosphere. Many thousands of animals, especially birds, are admitted to rehabilitation centers as the victims of pesticides and poisons. Others are oiled and poisoned in spills, and must be cleaned and treated.

Every household can do its part to reduce the danger to wildlife by being thoughtful with everyday products. Minimizing, or, ideally, eliminating the use of pesticides (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, algaecides), and properly disposing of them and their containers is one of the most important ways to improve the lot of wildlife. Properly disposing of antifreeze, motor oil, batteries, and many other toxic substances is also crucial. Buying organic food is enormously helpful. Discourage large and small-scale use of pesticides in every way you can.

To learn more about pollutants and pesticides and how they affect wildlife and wildlife habitat, please go to the environment section of this site.

For information on toxicology, toxins, treatments and cleaning of oiled birds, choose one of the topics below.

The ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center
The Animal Poison Control Center publishes press releases and information about poisons and animals. APCC also offers an online continuing education course for veterinary technicians.

Exotic Animal Network
A referenced listing of toxins and sources reported to be injurious to animals. Two versions are available. One is in sequence by the toxin or source name, the other is sequenced by animal name.

Mississippi State University
Aflatoxicosis in Wildlife: With the increased interest in feeding wildlife, aflatoxicosis is of greater concern than ever before. Corn contaminated during maturation or storage may cause mortality in wildlife even if the corn is placed in a covered, raised feeder. If feed is disbursed through many of the popular motorized sling feeders, considerable grain may pile up on the ground, where soil contact and/or rain is very likely to provide the right conditions for development of aflatoxin-producing fungi. It is difficult to document the extent to which wildlife species are affected because wild animals are free roaming and elusive. In many cases, predators and/or scavengers may consume dead or dying animals before the dead animals are found by humans.

OSU Environmental Health and Safety
Poisonous Plants, Animals, and Arthropods

Three Rivers Community College
TRC's website has an informative course outline on toxicology:

International Bird Rescue Research Center
IBRRC procedure for cleaning oiled birds.

Material Safety Data Sheets
Material Safety Data Sheets and other toxicity information are found at this excellent site:

U.S. Geological Survey
USGS Biological Resources Division Environmental and Contaminants Research Center: an excellent survey of environmental contaminants:

American Bird Conservancy
Pesticides and birds: Some pesticides can, and do, kill birds - songbirds, gamebirds, raptors, sea and shorebirds, among others. 672 million birds are directly exposed each year by pesticides on farms alone - according to one conservative estimate - and 10% of these, or roughly 67 million birds, die. According to the US Fish & Wildlife Service, approximately 50 pesticides currently used in the US have caused bird die-offs.

NCAP
Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides: Pesticides and Birds: From DDT to Today's Poisons

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
"Pesticides are used in nearly every home, business, farm, school, hospital and park in the United States and are found almost everywhere in our environment. In fact, recent studies of major rivers and streams documented that 96% of all fish, 100% of all surface water samples and 33% of major aquifers contained one or more pesticides at detectable levels (Gilliom, Robert). Pesticides were identified as one of the 15 leading causes of impairment for streams included on States' Clean. Pesticides have also been identified as a potential cause of amphibian declines and deformities and as one of a number of potential causes of pollinator species' declines and declines of other beneficial insects".

U.S. Geological Survey
"Gross necropsy findings in birds dying from OP and carbamate toxicity were minimal. Lung edema and hyperemia (see glossary) were the predominant findings when lesions were observed. Mammals such as Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), raccoon (Procyon lotor), and coyote (Canis latrans) were occasionally involved".

Canadian Poisonous Plants Information System
Agriculture Canada: All poisonous plants by botanical name and by common name; links to other poisonous plants sites.

Cornell University Poisonous Plants Informational Database
Poisonous Plants general information

Plants of special concern to animals: listed by animal species.
http://www.ansci.cornell.edu/plants/anispecies.html

Ingestion of Toxic Plants by Herbivores
Produced by Utah State University in collaboration with University of Idaho, University of Arizona, Montana State University and the National Wildlife Research Center with research conducted at Utah State University. PDF file.

Purdue University
Plants toxic to animals, listed using a variety of parameters:

University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Understanding mold toxins: Mold toxins can cause health problems in feeding livestock. This NebGuide defines and discusses toxins.

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
A list of plants toxic to animals

Wonder World of Insects
A brief survey of insects that are toxic to predators

Information on some toxic species:

The monarch butterfly


Fireflies


Lubber grasshoppers

Birder's Bug Book: by Gilbert Waldbauer This book works from an ingenious, unstated premise: birds eat insects of every conceivable description, but most birders know surprisingly little about those insects. Waldbauer, a retired professor of entomology at the University of Illinois, offers an accessible, well-written primer on bird-bug ecology, concentrating on "context"--the role of birds in the lives of insects, and of insects in the lives of birds. Among other things, he touches on the evolution of different beak shapes and sizes; on insect defense systems such as stinging or the production of noxious chemicals; and even on the curious turnabout whereby some insect species, such as certain kinds of ants and spiders, feed on birds. Hardcover , 320 pages Harvard University Press ISBN:0674002067 [see it at amazon.com]

A Field Guide to Common Animal Poisons: by Michael J. Murphy A quick reference guide written for veterinary practitioners and students featuring complete information on animal exposure to toxins in common and uncommon situations. Paperback: 330 pages Iowa State University Press ISBN:0813829348 [see it at amazon.com]

A Guide to Plant Poisoning of Animals in North America: by Anthony P. Knight, Richard Walter What's the appropriate treatment when Fluffy decides to eat Oleander? What are the presenting symptoms indicating that Bowser may have come in contact with poison ivy? Dr. Knight, DVM at Colorado State University, has compiled a comprehensive, system-based title containing common North American plants and their toxicological effects on large and small animals, along with diagnoses and treatment. Paperback: 367 pages Teton NewMedia ISBN:1893441113 [see it at amazon.com]

Handbook of Small Animal Toxicology & Poisonings: by Roger W. Gfeller, Shawn P. Messonnier This book is extremely easy to read, perfect for quick reference in emergency situations. Paperback: 416 pages Mosby-Year Book ISBN:0815164548 [see it at amazon.com]

Microbial Toxins in Foods and Feeds:Cellular and Molecular Modes of Action by Albert E. Pohland, Vulus R. Dowell, John L. Richard (Editor) This proceedings volume considers, in three sections, the cellular and molecular aspects of algal, bacterial, and fungal toxins respectively. Each section begins with a detailed overview-essay, with an emphasis on toxic effects upon human and animal foods and feeds. Hardcover: 617 pages Plenum Pub Corp ISBN:0306437163 [see it at amazon.com]

Toxicants of Plant Origin:Alkaloids, Volume I by Peter R. Cheeke (Editor) Hardcover: 352 pages CRC Press ISBN:0849369908 [see it at amazon.com]

Toxicology of Marine Mammals: by Joseph G. Vos (Editor), Gregory Bossart (Editor), Michel Fournier (Editor), June D. Purvis, Tom O'Shea This volume focuses on the effects of natural and introduced toxicants on organs and systems in marine mammals. It includes overview chapters on health and status and contaminants with subsequent chapters devoted to whales, pinnipeds(seals), dolphins, polar bears, manatees, and sea otters. The concluding chapter addresses perspective issues for the future. Hardcover Taylor & Francis ISBN:0415239141 [see it at amazon.com]

Toxins and Targets:Effects of Natural and Synthetic Poisons on Living Cells and Fragile Ecosystems by Dianne Watters, Martin Lavin, David Maguire, John Pearn (Editor) Hardcover: 199 pages Taylor & Francis ISBN:3718651947 [see it at amazon.com]

Venomous Animals:300 Animals in Full Color (Golden Guide) by Edmund D. Brodie, John D. Dawson (Illustrator) Featuring fascinating facts about some of the most remarkable animals on Earth, this guide introduces the major groups of venmous animals, including the most deadly species. Full-color illustrations throughout. Paperback: 160 pages Golden Books Pub Co ISBN:0307240746 [see it at amazon.com]

Veterinary Toxicology:The Practical Veterinarian by Joseph D. Roder A quick-reference review of clinically relevant toxins commonly encountered in veterinary practice. Includes numerous tables, bulleted lists, and figures, as well as alphabetical listings of toxicants and antidotes, making information easier to pinpoint. Paperback: 352 pages Butterworth-Heinemann ISBN:0750672404 [see it at amazon.com]